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| The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation |
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| The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Applied to Meteorology |
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| The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Applied to Chemistry |
Tuesday, March 26, 2013
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation shows the relationship between temperature and saturation vapor pressure, which determines when water substance changes phase. It allows the calculation of the vapor pressure at another temperature. The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation works because the vaporization curves of most liquids have similar shapes. The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation is dP/dT=L/T(delta times v), where dP/dT is the slope of tangent to the coexistence curve at any point, L is the latent heat, T is the temperature, and delta times v is is the volume change of the phase transition (see below). The equation has different forms depending on what it is applied to (see below). The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation is named after Rudolf Clausius (1822-1888) and Benoit Paul Emile Clapeyron (1799-1864).
Datum and Data
Datum (n.): something given or admitted especially as a basis for reasoning or inference; something used as a basis for calculating or measuring.
Data (n.): factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation; information output by a sensing device or organ that includes both useful and irrelevant or redundant information and must be processed to be meaningful; information in numerical form that can be digitally transmitted or processed.
Datum comes from the neuter form of the Latin word datus, "given." A datum is a given piece of information. Since the neuter plural ends in -a, the plural of datum is data. However, in today's society we most often use data as a singular word. It is still grammatically correct to say, "These data are," although it sounds strange. But we usually say, "This data is."
Data (n.): factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation; information output by a sensing device or organ that includes both useful and irrelevant or redundant information and must be processed to be meaningful; information in numerical form that can be digitally transmitted or processed.
Datum comes from the neuter form of the Latin word datus, "given." A datum is a given piece of information. Since the neuter plural ends in -a, the plural of datum is data. However, in today's society we most often use data as a singular word. It is still grammatically correct to say, "These data are," although it sounds strange. But we usually say, "This data is."
Parameterize
Parameterize (v.): to express in terms of parameters; to rewrite as a template into which parameters can be inserted.
To parameterize, according to Robert G. Fovell, is "to make things up." Parameterize comes from the Greek words para,"around," and metron, "to measure." Thus, to parameterize is to measure around. In meteorology, parameterization occurs when something is too small to fit into a forecasting model, so data has to be made up for it. Parameterization is measuring around that small something.
To parameterize, according to Robert G. Fovell, is "to make things up." Parameterize comes from the Greek words para,"around," and metron, "to measure." Thus, to parameterize is to measure around. In meteorology, parameterization occurs when something is too small to fit into a forecasting model, so data has to be made up for it. Parameterization is measuring around that small something.
Synesthesia
Synesthesia (n.): a concomitant sensation, especially a subjective sensation or image of a sense (as of color) other than the one (as of sound) being stimulated; the condition marked by the experience of such sensations.
Synesthesia comes from the Greek words syn, meaning "with, together," and aisthesis, meaning "sensation." Synesthesia is the medical condition of someone experiencing two sensations when most others experience one. Some synesthetes (a synesthete is someone with synesthesia) hear as well as feel a texture, or taste as well as see a color. Also, some synesthetes see color when they hear a certain consonant sound, or always see a letter in a certain color. Synesthesia is likely hereditary, but is not transmitted all of the time.
Synesthesia occurs when sensory regions in the brain have increased communications. When two areas of the brain that deal with the senses, e.g. hearing and seeing, have increased communications, if one of those areas is stimulated, then it stimulates the other area. For example, if the area that deals with hearing is stimulated by say music, the area that deals with sight will also be stimulated and the synesthete will perceive a color going along with the music. As well as being hereditary, synesthesia can also be caused by drugs, sensory depredation and/or brain damage.
Synesthesia comes from the Greek words syn, meaning "with, together," and aisthesis, meaning "sensation." Synesthesia is the medical condition of someone experiencing two sensations when most others experience one. Some synesthetes (a synesthete is someone with synesthesia) hear as well as feel a texture, or taste as well as see a color. Also, some synesthetes see color when they hear a certain consonant sound, or always see a letter in a certain color. Synesthesia is likely hereditary, but is not transmitted all of the time.
Synesthesia occurs when sensory regions in the brain have increased communications. When two areas of the brain that deal with the senses, e.g. hearing and seeing, have increased communications, if one of those areas is stimulated, then it stimulates the other area. For example, if the area that deals with hearing is stimulated by say music, the area that deals with sight will also be stimulated and the synesthete will perceive a color going along with the music. As well as being hereditary, synesthesia can also be caused by drugs, sensory depredation and/or brain damage.
Bibliography
Brang, David. "Survival of the Synesthesia Gene: Why Do People Hear Colors and Taste Words?" PLOS Biology. 22 November 2011. PLOS. 26 March 2013. <http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001205>
Day, Sean A. "Synesthesia." Daysyn.com. 20 March 2013. Day, Sean A. 26 March 2013. <http://www.daysyn.com/index.html>
Imagine. "Hearing in Color." Imagine March/April 2013: 4-5.
Saturday, March 23, 2013
The Four Elements and the Four Humours
The Greek philosopher/scientist Empedocles (490-430 B.C.) was the person who first thought up the theory of the four elements. Empedocles said that the whole world was made up of four elements, or roots: earth, air, fire, and water. They were governed by two forces: love, which brought them together, and strife, which drove them apart. Later on, the elements aquired four qualities: moist, hot, dry, and cold. Water was moist and cold; air was most and hot; earth was dry and cold; fire was dry and hot.
Empedocles also applied the four elements to medicine. He said that normally, the body had a balance of the elements; disease was brought on by an unbalance of the elements. This was later expanded to be the four liquids, or humours: phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile. Water was associated with phlegm, air with yellow bile, earth with black bile, and fire with blood.
The four humours were so widely accepted that we have many words derived from them today. Humour, in the sense of a disposition, comes from the humours. Phlegmatic means stolid and unemotional; sanguine (from the Latin word for blood) means cheerful and optimistic; melancholic (from black bile) means depressed; and choleric (from yellow bile) means angry. These words come from the supposed affects of the humours on someone's attitude.
Empedocles also applied the four elements to medicine. He said that normally, the body had a balance of the elements; disease was brought on by an unbalance of the elements. This was later expanded to be the four liquids, or humours: phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile. Water was associated with phlegm, air with yellow bile, earth with black bile, and fire with blood.
The four humours were so widely accepted that we have many words derived from them today. Humour, in the sense of a disposition, comes from the humours. Phlegmatic means stolid and unemotional; sanguine (from the Latin word for blood) means cheerful and optimistic; melancholic (from black bile) means depressed; and choleric (from yellow bile) means angry. These words come from the supposed affects of the humours on someone's attitude.
Bibliography
Youngson, Robert. Scientific Blunders. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1998.
SV40
SV40 stands for Simian Virus 40, named because it was the 40th virus to be discovered in a simian (monkey) family of viruses. What makes it special is that it can transform regular cells into cancer cells. The official name for these kinds of viruses is an oncovirus. "Onco" is Greek for "a lump," which refers to a tumor. SV40 uses the perturbation of the retinoblastoma (pRB) and p53 tumor suppresent proteins to transform cells.
SV40 has been involved in a couple medical blunders. The first was when a polio vaccine produced between 1955 and 1961 by American Home Products was found to be contaminated with SV40, after having contaminated millions. The second was in 1971. Paul Berg, a Nobel Prizewinner, decided that if he cut up some of SV40's DNA and inserted some of the fragments into some E. coli bacteria DNA, he would be able to isolate the genes that caused cancer. His assistant, Janet Mertz, mentioned this experiment at a genetic engineering conference. Her colleagues were horrified. They told her that if the E. coli from the experiment escaped, the SV40 would be replicating with the E. coli. Paul Berg immediately called off the experiment.
SV40 has been involved in a couple medical blunders. The first was when a polio vaccine produced between 1955 and 1961 by American Home Products was found to be contaminated with SV40, after having contaminated millions. The second was in 1971. Paul Berg, a Nobel Prizewinner, decided that if he cut up some of SV40's DNA and inserted some of the fragments into some E. coli bacteria DNA, he would be able to isolate the genes that caused cancer. His assistant, Janet Mertz, mentioned this experiment at a genetic engineering conference. Her colleagues were horrified. They told her that if the E. coli from the experiment escaped, the SV40 would be replicating with the E. coli. Paul Berg immediately called off the experiment.
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| An SV40 Virus |
Bibliography
Wikipedia. "SV40." Wikipedia. 23 March 2013. Wikipedia. 23 March 2013. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SV40>
Youngson, Robert. Scientific Blunders. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1998.
Thursday, March 21, 2013
Piezolytes
Note: I cannot find an official definition for "piezolyte" so I will use my own.
Piezolyte (n.): an organic molecule, found in organisms in shallow and deep water where it encounters hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure, that helps deep sea organisms to cope with the pressure.
In addition, I also need to define osmosis.
Osmosis (n.): a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution to into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane.
Piezolyte comes from the Greek piezo or piezein, "to press, squeeze," and the Greek lytos, "soluble." Osmosis comes from the Greek osmos, "a push." A piezolyte is a specialized form of osmolyte. An osmolyte, in intracellular liquid, regulates cell properties like cell volume in response to osmotic pressure. Piezolytes do the same thing but in response to both osmotic pressure, which is the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis, and hydrostatic pressure, which is the pressure exerted by liquid at rest. Piezolytes have been found in both deep sea microbes and deep sea crustaceans. It is still unknown exactly how piezolytes help deep sea organisms to live in habitats with crushing pressure.
Piezolyte (n.): an organic molecule, found in organisms in shallow and deep water where it encounters hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure, that helps deep sea organisms to cope with the pressure.
In addition, I also need to define osmosis.
Osmosis (n.): a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution to into a more concentrated one, thus equalizing the concentrations on each side of the membrane.
Piezolyte comes from the Greek piezo or piezein, "to press, squeeze," and the Greek lytos, "soluble." Osmosis comes from the Greek osmos, "a push." A piezolyte is a specialized form of osmolyte. An osmolyte, in intracellular liquid, regulates cell properties like cell volume in response to osmotic pressure. Piezolytes do the same thing but in response to both osmotic pressure, which is the pressure that would have to be applied to a pure solvent to prevent it from passing into a given solution by osmosis, and hydrostatic pressure, which is the pressure exerted by liquid at rest. Piezolytes have been found in both deep sea microbes and deep sea crustaceans. It is still unknown exactly how piezolytes help deep sea organisms to live in habitats with crushing pressure.
Bibliography
Axel. "A term in phsyiology: piezolyte for an osmolyte whose cellular levels respond to hydrostatic and osmotic pressure." Latintos. 13 May 2012. Axel. 21 March 2013. <http://golatintos.blogspot.com/2012/05/term-in-physiology-piezolyte-for.html>
Tuesday, March 19, 2013
Days of the Week
The names of our current days of the week come from Anglo-Saxon and Norse mythology.
Monday is Monandaeg, or Moon's Day.
Tuesday is Tiwesdaeg, or Tiw's Day (also Tiu or Tig). Tiw was the Norse sky god.
Wednesday is Wodnesdaeg, or Woden's Day.
Thursday is Dunresdaeg, or Thor's Day. In this case the name of the day comes from Thor's Day, not Dunresdaeg.
Friday is Frigedaeg, or Frigg's Day. Frigg was Woden's wife.
Saturday is Saeternesdaeg, or Saturn's Day.
Sunday is Sunnandaeg, or Sun's Day.
Tuesday is Tiwesdaeg, or Tiw's Day (also Tiu or Tig). Tiw was the Norse sky god.
Wednesday is Wodnesdaeg, or Woden's Day.
Thursday is Dunresdaeg, or Thor's Day. In this case the name of the day comes from Thor's Day, not Dunresdaeg.
Friday is Frigedaeg, or Frigg's Day. Frigg was Woden's wife.
Saturday is Saeternesdaeg, or Saturn's Day.
Sunday is Sunnandaeg, or Sun's Day.
Bibliography
Youngson, Robert. Scientific Blunders. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1998.
Monsoon
Monsoon (n.): a periodic wind especially in the Indian Ocean and southern Asia; the season of the southwest monsoon in India and adjacent areas that is characterized by very heavy rainfall; rainfall that is associated with the monsoon.
Monsoons are generally thought of as Asia's version of the hurricane. Technically, however, they are a seasonal reversal of the wind, especially in Asia. In fact, "monsoon" is Arabic for "season." Before I cover why this seasonal reversal occurs, I need to tell you a few things about the wind.
The main driving force of the wind is the pressure gradient force, or PGF. This is the pressure area over a distance. Wind wants to blow towards low pressure, but is sometimes prevented by doing that by the Coriolis force and other forces. In this case, the Coriolis force does not hinder the wind that much.
During the winter, the air over Asia is cooler. That means not very much rising, which in turn means high pressure. Thus, the wind blows away from the continent, toward the Indian Ocean and low pressure. However, in summer the air rises more. This lowers the pressure over Asia, making the wind switch from blowing towards the ocean to blowing towards the land. That seasonal switching is the monsoon.
The other definition of a monsoon, very heavy rainfall, is caused by this seasonal switching. The ocean as well as the land is a lot warmer in the summer. This means that more water will evaporate, making the air more humid. This humid air is carried inland and rises, which creates clouds. These clouds form what we generally think of as the monsoon.
Monsoons are generally thought of as Asia's version of the hurricane. Technically, however, they are a seasonal reversal of the wind, especially in Asia. In fact, "monsoon" is Arabic for "season." Before I cover why this seasonal reversal occurs, I need to tell you a few things about the wind.
The main driving force of the wind is the pressure gradient force, or PGF. This is the pressure area over a distance. Wind wants to blow towards low pressure, but is sometimes prevented by doing that by the Coriolis force and other forces. In this case, the Coriolis force does not hinder the wind that much.
During the winter, the air over Asia is cooler. That means not very much rising, which in turn means high pressure. Thus, the wind blows away from the continent, toward the Indian Ocean and low pressure. However, in summer the air rises more. This lowers the pressure over Asia, making the wind switch from blowing towards the ocean to blowing towards the land. That seasonal switching is the monsoon.
The other definition of a monsoon, very heavy rainfall, is caused by this seasonal switching. The ocean as well as the land is a lot warmer in the summer. This means that more water will evaporate, making the air more humid. This humid air is carried inland and rises, which creates clouds. These clouds form what we generally think of as the monsoon.
Novas and Supernovas
Supernova (n.): the explosion of a star in which the star may reach a maximum intrinsic luminosity one billion times that of the sun.
An exploding star is called a nova (or, if it is a very large explosion, a supernova), which means "new" in Latin. This is because of the first person to notice a nova. In November 1572 the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe noticed a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia, where no star had previously been observed. The star was brighter than Venus but faded away after 17 months. Tycho did some calculating and found out that the star was incredibly far away. In 1573 Tycho published an account of his finds called De nova stella, translated from Latin as "On the New Star" or "About the New Star." Since then, such exploding stars have been called 'novas.'
An exploding star is called a nova (or, if it is a very large explosion, a supernova), which means "new" in Latin. This is because of the first person to notice a nova. In November 1572 the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe noticed a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia, where no star had previously been observed. The star was brighter than Venus but faded away after 17 months. Tycho did some calculating and found out that the star was incredibly far away. In 1573 Tycho published an account of his finds called De nova stella, translated from Latin as "On the New Star" or "About the New Star." Since then, such exploding stars have been called 'novas.'
Bibliography
Youngson, Robert. Scientific Blunders. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1998.
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